Most biobased adhesives are biodegradable, and thus sustainable. Another sustainable option could be recyclable adhesives.

Biodegradable adhesives are designed to break down naturally over time. These adhesives are typically made from materials like vegetable starch, which decomposes quickly in soil or water. Biodegradable adhesives are commonly used for recyclable packaging materials. They are also a good choice for applications where the adhesive needs to be removed easily, as they can be dissolved in water.

Recyclable adhesives can be remelted and collected for future use without any waste or residue. Recyclable adhesives are typically suited to bonding metals (primarily aluminium or steel) and glass. Look out for thermoplastic adhesives like EVA and PO glue to enable remelting and reuse.  In Europe, two standards verify biobased content and biodegradability – EN 16785-1 and EN 13432 respectfully.

Casein is the protein present in milk. Casein glue is composed of the acid casein lime, fungicide, and salts of sodium. It is non-toxic and biodegradable.

This adhesive is water-soluble and dries to a hard, strong, and durable bond. It is also water-resistant and can be used in a wet and cold conditions without losing its properties.

If needed, the glue can be removed by soaking in an alkaline solution. 

Such glue is easy to work with, as it can be mixed with water to create a paste-like consistency that can be easily applied to surfaces.

The process of creating this glue is nearly identical to that of making cheese and can be performed at home. You can find various recipes online. The most basic ones contain only: skimmed milk (powder), vinegar, baking soda and water. Replacing baking soda with slaked lime gives a more durable and water resistant glue.

Casein glue can be used for woodworking, paper and bookbinding. Once materials are covered with glue and pressed, the drying time will take for about 2–4 hours.

Another downside is that casein is a rather expensive material. Besides, it is  obviously not vegan.

Seed and fruit mucilage is composed of three types of polysaccharides—pectins, cellulose, and hemicelluloses—and demonstrates adhesive properties after hydration.

Rubber-based adhesives has great flexibility and are particularly suitable for bonding porous materials such as paper, leather and fabrics. On its own, natural rubber does not have any adhesive properties, so various additives and resins are added to create an adhesive material.

Rubber-based adhesives are able to withstand vibration, as well as high and low temperature conditions. They have a quick adhesion.

Soy-based adhesives are composed of natural soy flour and a natural resin resin. Such adhesives is comparable in strength and performance to urea-formaldehyde-based adhesives. They have excellent water resistance and are available in a wide range of binding strengths. Usually, they are used for wood.

They excel in applications where a strong initial bond and high peel strength are required, such as in bonding paper, cardboard, fabrics, and certain plastics.

Animal glue refers to the collagen found in skin, bones and connective tissue, left from scraps from leather production and the slaughter sector. Collagen is the main protein in mammalian connective tissue. This collagen can be used as an adhesive called technical gelatine.

Gelatine can form strong bonds with wood, paper, fabric, and even metals. But its adhesive properties can be affected by environmental factors such as humidity and temperature.

Plant-based adhesives are made from renewable materials such as starch, cellulose and vegetable oil. These adhesives are biodegradable. Plant-based adhesives can be used to bind paper, wood or textiles. Plant-based adhesives are considered to be separate from standard biodegradeables due to their general makeup.

Glass is made up of a mixture of silica sand (also known as white sand or quartz sand), soda ash, and limestone. Although these elements are natural and in theory glass can be recycled infinitely, it is not the most sustainable material.  

First of all, it might seem that sand is not a rare substance, yet, today the world is running out of sand, as it is the most consumed resource on earth after freshwater.

Secondly, glass production is highly energy-intensive. Besides, glass is heavy to transport. These factors lead to significant carbon emissions which, in turn, contribute to global warming.

It is true that glass can be recycled, but sometimes it is a difficult process due to its weight compared to other materials, which impacts transport. Additionally, its fragility can cause issues with machinery as well as fears of the contamination of other recyclables (such as paper and card) in single-stream recycling systems.

Unfortunately, not all glass items can be recycled— for example, neither mirrors nor heat-proofed glass can be recycled. Lots of glass end up their life in landfills. But that is a problem, because it takes at least 4,000 years for glass to break down.

All of the materials used to create stoneware, earthenware, and porcelain come from soil.

Yet, it is important to remember that the production process itself is not particularly sustainable. Firstly, the mining of china clay alone leaves behind nine tonnes of waste for every one tonne of clay extracted. Secondly, to fire a kiln, you need quite a lot of energy. And most kilns are powered by fossil fuels. Kilns emit CO2, carbon monoxide, particulate matters, sulfur dioxide and black carbon which pollute air. These emissions can also negatively impact soil health. Moreover, once glazed and fired to over 1,100° C, clay cannot easily be reused, nor will it biodegrade.

What is more, chemicals for glazing can be toxic. Lead- and cadmium based glazing can be harmful for humans’ health if pottery is used as kitchenware (as it may leak into the foods and water). Among other potentially toxic elements occasionally added in glazing are barium, cobalt, nickel, and selenium.

There are not many eco-friendly alternatives to kilns.

In recent years, there appeared electric kilns which can be powered by solar or wind energy.

Another option might be using water and calcium carbonate nano powder to compact ceramics at room temperature. The research found that it is energy-efficient and does not cause as much pollution.

To reduce your carbon footprint, you can also use recycled clay and locally sourced materials.  As for the glazing, it could be made from wood and plant ashes. 

Material designer Sinae Kim created glazed from human urine, and designer Yoon Seok-hyeon coated ceramics with layers of resin instead of glazing. Thus surfaces became waterproof, and the pieces didn’t require firing.

To add more on the positive side, ceramics might be a good choice if you aim for longevity – as it endures for millennia. Although glazed pieces can't be recycled, they can be upcycled – for example, turned into tiles.

Read more on this medium in "Know your media" section.

Waxes come from 3 main sources: plants, petroleum and animal fats. In antiquity waxes were produced from the fats of cows and sheep. Today, the most common material for wax is a manmade paraffin.

The most common plant waxes are carnauba (palm) and soy wax. Another options include coconut and rapeseed waxes.

Probably, the most sustainable options are coconut and rapeseed wax. However, it is important to check that there are no additives in these types of wax.

Carnauba, or palm wax comes from carnauba palm leaves. This is a hard wax, so it holds the shape well. It also holds pigments and fragrances well. however, the production of this wax produces big environmental issues, due to the deforestation of palm trees. Thus, it is not the best choice in terms of sustainability.

Soy wax comes from soybean oil. It holds fragrances well, it is also smokeless if used for candles. But it doesn’t hold and dissolve pigments and thus will create pastel shades only. In addition, soy wax is quite soft, so it melts easily in the high temperatures. It is biodegradable. However, many soybeans used for wax production are genetically modified and grown using pesticides and herbicides. These practices lead to environmental pollution. Among other problems that soy farming often causes are monoculture farming and deforestation.

Coconut wax is made from hydrogenated coconuts. Melts at higher temperatures than soy wax. Holds fragrances well. It is highly biodegradable. Coconut trees are sustainable crops; they require less water and pesticides compared to soy or palm. It is often more expensive than soy or paraffin wax and it might be more difficult to find.

Made form the plant, rapeseed wax holds fragrances well and has a long burn time if used for candles. It is biodegradable. When burning, this wax doesn’t produce soot or smoke. Due to its high melting point and hardness, this wax is perfect for making folded objects.

Two of the most commonly used petroleum waxes are paraffin and microcrystalline. Both of these waxes are derived from crude oil or coal, but have different properties.

When burned, paraffin wax candles release particles which pollute the indoor air. Due to its low melting point, soft paraffin wax is often mixed with stearic acid (animal or palm fatty acids) to make it harder. It’s non-renewable and not biodegradable.

Microcrystalline wax originates from the residue left after the refining of lubricating oils. Microcrystalline waxes are darker in color compared to paraffin waxes and have a tackier texture. They are also more flexible, which is why they are often used for sealing and binding purposes. It can be reprocessed and reused.

The most common type of animal wax is beeswax. Bees secrete this wax and use it to build their honeycombs. Beeswax is more expensive than soy wax and paraffin wax.

Tallow is another animal wax type. It is made from beef or pig fat. This wax emits odour and produces smoke when burning. Tallow wax is biodegradable. Yet, the production of tallow requires a significant amount of resources, such as water, land, and feed, for raising livestock. Livestock farming also contributes to the green house gases emissions and often leads to deforestation.

Finally, there are also blend waxes which are often made of several natural waxes, such as soy and coconut or soy and beeswax, that offer a balance between sustainability, performance, and cost.

Plasterboard is made from a layer of gypsum plaster that is “sandwiched” between two layers of strong recycled paper. In house construction, it is used as a quicker alternative to traditional lath and plaster. Plasterboard is easy to paint on. Some types of plasterboard can also provide sound isolation.

Gypsum used in plasterboard comes either from natural, or synthetic sources. Naturally occurring gypsum is mined, while synthetic gypsum is a by-product of coal-fired power plants. The production process of plasterboard requires a lot of energy and water usage. Besides, usually different additives are used to make plasterboards more efficient – for example, glass fibre or silicone. All the things considered, plasterboard is an unsustainable material.

In England, Germany, and the Canadian province of British Columbia, gypsum-based waste is prohibited from being sent to landfill. It is classed as hazardous waste: it can become dangerous when discarded alongside general waste. If it gets wet and breaks down, it creates a toxic gas called Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S). It can be toxic for people and is extremely harmful to the environment.

More sustainable alternative is Wheatboard

It is made of wheat straw, a by-product of harvesting wheat.

Wheat straw boards are durable and lightweight. Yet, they have porous structure, and they are susceptible to moisture.

The production process of wheat boards generally has a lower carbon footprint compared to traditional plastic or even some wood. What is more, unlike plywood, particle board or MDF, it contains no formaldehyde adhesives, and thus is biodegradable. It is also recyclable.

Wood foam has characteristics similar to some polymer-based foams. It is a light base material with a porous, open-cell structure and low bulk density, usually, used for packaging. It can be reused, or recycled in the same way as waste paper. It is also biodegradable.

Plastic lumber is made from either virgin or recycled plastic. Sometimes, sawdust is added to the final material. It both looks and feels just like wood. It can be 2-3 times more expensive than regular wood. Typically, plastic lumber does not absorb paint or glue, and thus can not be easily painted on.

Most types of plastic lumber are made from high density polyethylene, (HDPE) some low density polyethylene (LDPE) and some from polypropylene (PP) or a combination.

Unlike traditional wooden timber, plastic is water-, fire- and rot-resistant. This material is highly durable. It also performs well both in extremely hot and cold environments.

Some types of plastic lumber can be recycled, but it can not be biodegraded.

Cork grows a lot faster than wood. It is harvested by carefully removing the bark of the cork oak tree, the tree itself continues to grow and regenerates the outer back in a couple of years. That is why this material is considered more sustainable than wood.

Cork has leather-like properties and is sometimes viewed as an alternative to PVC in fashion industry. It is waterproof, light, elastic and compressible, provides thermal and acoustic insulation, it is a fire retardant. 

Cork is completely recyclable and renewable.

Particle board is composed of wood particles combined with resins and adhesives.

It can contain one layer or several layers. It utilizes wood particles and byproducts that would otherwise be discarded as waste. Yet, the resins and adhesives used in particle board often contain formaldehyde, a volatile organic compound (VOC) that can contribute to indoor air pollution and health concerns. This chemicals make particle boards non-biodegradable and difficult to recycle.

Particle boards are very similar to MDF. They mainly differ in the size and types of wood fibers: MDF comprises smaller wood particles in the uniformed size. Also, particle board has coarse surface compared to MDF. Particleboard is lighter when compared to MDF in the same size. All in all, MDF is a bit more durable.

More sustainable alternatives are: Wheatboard, Breathaboard, cork

Plywood is made by gluing layers of thin wood veneer together at right angles which creates a strong board less susceptible to shrinkage, expansion or warping than solid timber.

Advantages of plywood: 

• Strength and durability

• Easy to cut

• Water and chemical resistance

• Flexibility or bendability

• Fire resistance

• Sound and thermal insulation

Plywood can be considered a rather sustainable choice, but that depends on the origin of the wood and glue used for its production. It is best if the wood is certified by Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), and the glues come from natural sources, for example, starch. The distance and mode of transportation to deliver plywood to the place where you work also matters.

Because of synthetic glues, plywood is not biodegradable. Also, some glues, which are formaldehyde-based, emit toxic gases. However, plywood can be recycled.

More sustainable alternatives are: Wheatboard, Cork.

Useful links: Cradle-to-grave assessment of plywood by Impactful Ninja. 

To what degree MDF is sustainable, depends on several factors.

First, it is important to understand whether the material has been made from a wood waste or from virgin wood fibers. Reusing wood waste is a sustainable solution, while the use of virgin wood fibers contributes to deforestation and environmental degradation. Some manufacturers also use recycled paper and cardboard. Secondly, the origin of the glue used to form MDF is crucial. Typically, formaldehyde-based resins are used, which can emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are harmful to human health. However, there are naturally-based alternatives to formaldehyde-based adhesives – such as potato-based glues.


In most cases, MDF is made up of 82% wood fibre, 9% urea-formaldehyde resin glue, 8% water, and 1% paraffin wax.

MDF is susceptible to water. It can withstand humidity and moisture, but if exposed to water, MDF sheets begin to swell and bend. MDF holds and binds to all colors very easily. It can be painted and coated with a variety of oil and water based paints and varnishes.

MDF is very similar to particle boards, they mainly differ in the size and types of wood fibers: MDF comprises smaller wood particles in the uniformed size. Also, particle board has coarse surface compared to MDF. Particleboard is lighter when compared to MDF in the same size. All in all, MDF is a bit more durable.

Currently, MDF can not be recycled: the wood fibres are glued together which makes material difficult to reuse and recycle. Because of synthetic glues, MDF is not biodegradable either. 

More sustainable alternatives are: Wheatboard, cork, hemp.

Bamboo is a versatile material that can be used in a variety of ways – it serves as a source material for building blocks and panels, textile, cardboards and paper.

Among the textile derived from bamboo, bamboo lyocell is the most sustainable option as it doesn’t require chemical treatment. Besides, less water is used during the process of its production.

Compared with other paper materials which has the same grammage, bamboo paper is much stronger and solider. It is perfect for making packaging, especially boxes.

Bamboo is a very robust material, it is more durable than steel. At the same time, it is incredibly light. However, in its natural state the material might attract insects and fungus, which cause decay. That is why some coating is recommended, if you aim for longevity and durability.

Bamboo is considered to be a rather sustainable option. Yet, there are some factors that should be taken into consideration before choosing this material. For instance, whether it has been transported many thousands of kilometres from where it was sourced, as in that case its carbon footprint can be quite big. Secondly, the process of turning bamboo into a usable material often involves chemicals and energy-intensive processes. Additionally, bamboo is typically grown in monoculture plantations, which can lead to soil erosion and a loss of biodiversity.

At the same time, bamboo lasts long and requires low maintenance. Also, it grows quickly in the woods. Bamboo only needs 35 to 40 days to reach its full height. Moreover, bamboo can regrow naturally from its own root system after being harvested. This means it does not have to be replanted, no soil erosion and excess tilling. Furthermore, its high adaptability to most soil conditions and climates make it useful in restoring degraded and damaged lands.

Bamboo is biodegradable and compostable.

Useful links:  Are bamboo construction materials environmentally friendly? A life cycle environmental impact analysis. Research paper by Peiyu Xu and others (2022)

Forests absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere thus they contribute to slowing down global warming on our planet. It is one of the main reasons we should protect forests and avoid deforestation.

If you chose to work with wood, try to search for the wood that is locally produced (or at least has not come to where you are from afar) and received a certificate from Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) or the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC). FSC certification guarantees that the wood comes from responsibly managed forests that meet social, economic, and environmental standards. Besides, eco-wood undergoes processing methods that minimize harmful chemicals and reduce waste.

It also important to have in mind what kind of finishes and adhesives you use to refine the wooden pieces. 

Eco-friendly finishing options include water-based or plant-based finishes. 

Another choice is natural oils, like linseed or tung oil. Oil finishes are easy to work with and food safe. They will help to protect a wood piece from light scratches.

Shellac is a finish that is made from a secretion produced by the lac bug. It can be sprayed or brushed on wood products. It comes in various colors and provides protection from contaminants. However, it provides limited protection from water, heat and alcohol.

Finally, there is milk paint which is made from milk casein, clay fillers, lime and earth pigments. It is biodegradable, non-toxic, and it dries quickly. Milk paint provides a strong, protective layer to wood.

Metals are divided into pure and alloy metals.

Pure ones only contain one type of metal.

Examples of pure metals are: 

• aluminium

• silver

• copper

• gold

• iron

• zinc

Alloy metals are created by mixing pure metals together or with other materials. 

Examples of alloy metals are: 

• brass – an alloy of copper and zinc

• steel – an alloy of iron and carbon (from coal)

• bronze – an alloy of copper and tin.

Metals are non-renewable. 

The mining of metal can cause pollution to local wildlife, harm plants, and people. Heavy metals can become strongly toxic by mixing with water, soil, and air, and humans and other living organisms can be exposed to them through the food chain.

Chemicals or heating are used during the process of making metals resulting in the production of carbon dioxide. This contributes to climate change.

It takes less energy to recycle metal than make new metal. Moreover, when recycled metals do not lose their properties.

Alginate is a natural polysaccharide derived from brown algae. It is a hypoallergenic material initially produced for dental casting, but can be also used in art for making molds.

Alginate has a single-use nature: it can turn from a liquid state into a semi-solid state depending on the temperature. However, it can not turn back.  Alginate sets quickly (2-5 minutes) and captures fine details.

Compared to other casting materials like silicone or polyether, alginate is more affordable and is easier to use.

Alginate does not stick to anything.

Alginate is an organic material; therefore, it will shrink and deteriorate quickly after the mould is created. You can cast into your alginate mould with plaster or gypsum. Resin is not a suitable material to cast into alginate, as the moisture in the mould will prevent the resin from curing. Before casting into your mould, rinse it out under lukewarm water, as this will remove any dirt or oils from the hand that may affect the cast surface.

Alginate is biodegradable.

Natural resins are exuded from trees, especially pines and firs. Resin forms as a result of injury to the bark from wind, fire, lightning, or other cause.  

Resins are soluble in various organic liquids but not in water. They are typically transparent or translucent and are yellowish to brown in colour. Natural resins have properties similar to man-made ones, such as strength, durability, and chemical resistance. Natural resins can be easily molded and cast into a wide range of shapes and sizes.

The most common source material for natural resins is polylactic acid, which comes from corn. However, there are some downsides to this material choice as corn requires the use of a petroleum-based fertilizer to grow, which partially runs into waterways and thus pollutes marine life.

A better alternative to corn is sugarcane, which does not need as much land and produces fewer emissions during processing.

EcoPoxy resin is another plant-based material with characteristics similar to that of an epoxy resin. EcoPoxy products are up to 54% bio based, non-toxic, and emit no harmful fumes.

Some natural resins are biodegradable or compostable.

There are several products made from hemp that are gradually entering the construction industry. For example, hemp chips can substitute wood chips and hempcrete can be used instead of regular concrete.

Hemp can also be used for making paper. Paper from hemp is naturally acid-free and does not become yellow and brittle or disintegrate over time like conventional paper. It is a faster and more efficient way of growing fibre than the use of trees.

Hempcrete is a mixture of hemp shives (a waste product generated when processing hemp into fiber) lime, water and additives like sand. Hempcrete uses much less water than typical concrete and is much lighter. This material produces a passive humidity control system that lowers the buildup of moisture, thus protecting the construction built from hempcrete from moulds and rot. Hempcrete is fire-resistant.

Hemp has an ability to capture carbon. In addition, hemp has anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, so it is friendly to people with skin allergies.

Hemp bricks are known to be as hard as stone. They have acoustical and insulating properties. Another advantage is that the rodents keep away from the mixture of hemp and lime.

However, In hot climates, hemp blocks can quickly become dried out and brittle, making them susceptible to crumbling. That is why it might not be suitable for places with hot environments.

Hemp is also a liquid-permeable material, which means it might be better not to use it in underwater constructions.

Hemp is renewable and biodegradable.

Useful links: ‘It’s almost carbon-negative’: how hemp became a surprise building material. The Guardian (2024) 

Clay plaster, also known as earthen plaster, is composed of clay, sand, fibers, and sometimes additives like straw or lime. Clay is naturally abundant. Besides, low-energy is needed for its processing. This material can be considered a more sustainable alternative to gypsum plaster.

Clay plaster is fire resistant, it offers good adhesion and breathability. It has a smooth and pliable texture, making it easy to mold and shape. It can be applied in thin layers, allowing for intricate detailing or sculpting.

After the plaster has been applied, it should dry and harden. This can take several days or even weeks, depending on the thickness of the plaster and the conditions in your working space.

During this time, it is important to keep the plaster moist to prevent it from drying out too quickly and cracking. This can be done by misting the plaster with water or covering it with a damp cloth. Once the plaster is fully dry, it can be sealed with a natural oil or wax to protect it.

Clay plaster is known for its ability to absorb and release moisture and thus prevent the formation of mold.  If clay plaster gets damaged, it can be easily repaired.

Clay plaster can be recycled and reused through a simple low energy process. It is also biodegradable and can be even composted.

Usually, plaster is made by mixing water, lime, gypsum, sand, and other strengthening materials, such as animal hair. There are different types of plaster, but, perhaps, one the most popular types in the art field is plaster of Paris, or gypsum plaster.

Plaster of Paris is a quick-setting gypsum plaster consisting of a fine white powder, which hardens when moistened and allowed to dry. Plaster of paris (sulfate of lime) is often used for the production of molds, casts, and preliminary models.

This material is durable and fire-resistant.

The production of plaster of Paris involves a process called calcination, where the gypsum is heated to remove the water content and create calcium sulfate hemihydrate. This process is energy-intensive and results in the release of carbon dioxide, thus contributing to global warming. It also mining gypsum, which depletes natural resources and requires high energy consumption.

In the process of mixing the plaster, it is important to wear protective goggles, gloves, and a mask to prevent inhalation of fine particles.

Plaster of Paris is not biodegradable, but it can be recycled.

Lime can be considered a sustainable alternative to concrete. Lime is a little softer and more flexible than concrete. It is a strong and durable material which also has antimicrobial properties. Lime mortar is inherently fire-resistant and has the capacity to absorb and release moisture.

Lime requires less energy to produce than cement. Moreover, lime mortar is a carbon sink which means that it absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere as it hardens and sets. However, it requires some precaution to work with: make sure to wear gloves and glasses, and work in a well ventilated space to protect your respiratory system and eyes.

Lime is not renewable. Nevertheless, limestone is yet an abundant material. Besides, lime also has the potential to be recycled or reused.

Cellulose is a natural polymer found in plants. It serves as a structural component of plant cell walls. Plants’ stems, leaves or seeds can be used to get cellulosic fibers.

Cellulosic fibers are used in textiles, papermaking, building and advanced nano-materials. Textiles from cellulose is known for their soft, smooth, and silky texture. They can soak up moisture quickly and are valued for their strength, durability, and sustainability.

There are two categories of cellulosic fibers: 

• Natural

• Regenerated  

A. Natural cellulosic fibers

Made directly from plants and are not chemically altered. By far the most common of these is cotton, obtained from the seed. Here are more examples of natural cellulosic fibers: cotton, hemp, linen, bamboo, jute, abaca, flax, ramie, nettle, apple, pineapple and others.   

B. Regenerated cellulosic fibers

Created by chemically dissolving cellulose and then regenerating it into fibers. Here are some common types of regenerated cellulosic fibers: rayon, lyocell, modal, tencel, viscose.

In general, the production process for cellulose fibres is less resource-intensive than that of synthetic materials. However, not all cellulose fibres are created equal in terms of environmental impact.

Viscose is the first man-regenerated cellulosic fiber which spread commercially around the 1940s. The process of its production requires intensive use of chemicals which are harmful for the environment. The same goes for the production of modal. That is why these fibres are not the most sustainable choice. Another negative point is that viscose can be less durable than other regenerated cellulosic fibers.

Among the regenerated cellulosic fibre production processes, lyocell is the most modern and most environmentally friendly. No toxic chemicals are required to make it, and there are fewer production steps compared to conventional viscose production. Lyocell fiber has higher tenacity (especially wet tenacity), higher modulus, lower shrinkage, better thermal stability than Viscose.

Tencel belongs to the family of lyocell fibres. It is made from the wood pulp of eucalyptus trees, and the production process uses a closed-loop system that recycles up to 99% of the solvents used. Besides, the water usage is rather low. This fabric is soft and has a feel similar to silk or cotton. Tencel is biodegradable and can decompose within a few months.

The Ioncell fabric has even better strength and durability than tencel and viscose. It is developed through the newest and most sustainable method of production which requires only one solvent – a liquid salt. It was invented by the Helsinki-based textile innovation company of the same name, and is a collaboration between Aalto University and University of Helsinki together with partners. The Ioncell fabric contributes to circular economics: waste textiles, waste paper or products made from natural fibres can be used as a base for the new fabric.

Finally, nanocellulose has advanced properties, for example, its stiffness is comparable with that of Kevlar and is better than that of glass fiber. Films made from nanocellulose are as well known for their high strength. Nanocellulose can also be used to make aerogels / foams.

Algae-based materials are not only sustainable alternatives to non-renewable materials, especially plastics, but they can also be considered one of the best options among environment-friendly materials. Algae doesn’t need any land to grow, and thus it doesn’t compete with other land crops like cornstarch, bamboo, or hemp. Besides, it grows very fast.

Algae is used to create textiles, bioplastics and black ink. However, algae fibers are currently more expensive than conventional fibers like cotton.

Algae-based materials are renewable, reusable and recyclable. Algae products and packaging can be manufactured so as to be fully compostable at home in the backyard, or even edible.

Mycelium-based materials are used in packaging, building and for acoustic dampening. Mycelium can be also used in textiles is as an alternative to animal leather. Mycelium-based leather can be dyed and bleached. A composite board from mycelium (Myco-board) can be used instead of MDF which contains formaldehyde and thus may cause health issues when sawn. 

Mycelium-based materials are lightweight and could be folded into various forms.

Mycelium-based materials are renewable, recyclable and biodegradable. Moreover, as they decompose, mycelia-based composites release nutrients into soil.

Terracotta is 100% natural. Typically, a reddish, unglazed ceramic material. In Italian, “terracotta” means “baked earth”. 

It is rather strong and durable, resistant to heat and climate. Because terracotta contains a significant amount of iron, it will melt at a lower temperature than other types of clay such as stoneware or porcelain. Thus, it can be considered a sustainable option. To make objects from terracotta waterproof and non-porous, glazing might be needed.

Liquid wood is bioplastic, it is a mix of lignin, byproduct of paper production, and cellulose flax, water and some natural additives.

This material looks and feels like wood, but it is easily mouldable and solidifies like plastic. It is harder and stiffer than conventional plastics. It is also weatherproof and UV-resistant. On the other hand, it is considerably brittle and much heavier than regular plastic materials. Another disadvantage is that liquid wood is yet new on the market and costs more than regular plastics.

Liquid wood is produced via innovative process with low carbon footprint. It is non-toxic and biodegradable. It is possible to recycle the material.

Lignin represents the second most common biopolymer found in nature, next to cellulose, making up about 20% of all organic matter. Inside plants, lignin acts as a natural binding element of the cell walls. It accounts for about 1/3 of a tree’s material.

Lignin is a usual byproduct in paper industry, it ends either in landfills, or burned for energy. Reusing this mass contributes to circular economy. 

Polymer blends from lignin are strong and durable. Due to its versatility, lignin can become a bioplastic material, like PLA; a foamed material like PU-foam, EXP, EPS; 3D printing filament; a fibre for textiles; a carbon fiber alternative, or an adhesive. In all these materials, lignin serves as the natural substitute for fossil-based ingredients or products.

lignin, itself, is barely degradable in composting settings, however, it can be added to biodegradable polymers to improve their mechanical and gas barrier qualities, which are two of the primary shortcomings of biodegradable polymers. It also acts as antioxidant, and has UV characteristics.

Latex refers to a suspension of small rubber particles in a liquid medium. Latex can be natural or synthetic.

Natural latex comes from the rubber tree which is native to Brazil and which is grown in plantations in South America, west Africa and south-east Asia. It can be a demanding material to work with. Under prolonged exposure, the material becomes brittle and discoloured.

Natural latex is renewable – as long as there are rubber trees on the planet. One tree is able to produce latex for up to 25 years.

It is highly elastic, resilient, durable, biodegradable.

The top advantages of natural rubber include: 

• High tensile strength 

• Resistant to tearing and abrasion 

• Resistant to compression 

• Dampens vibrations well 

• Strong adhesion abilities  

Liquid latex can be used for molds. It can create intricate and detailed molds. It is easy to remove latex molds without any damage to the original object.

When working with latex rubber, you will need a release agent to prevent it from sticking to the mold or other materials.

Synthetic latex is produced through a chemical process called emulsion polymerization, in which various monomers and chemicals are combined to create a polymer that mimics the properties of natural latex. Synthetic latex is durable, but less elastic than natural one, and has a firmer feel. 

Synthetic latex is not biodegradable and is made from non-renewable resources.

There are three main groups:


• Biobased or partially biobased non-biodegradable plastics, such as biobased PE, PP, or PET and biobased technical performance polymers, such as PTT or TPC-ET;

• Plastics that are both biobased and biodegradable, such as PLA and PHA or PBS; 

• Plastics that are based on fossil resources and are biodegradable, such as PBAT.  

These plastics are typically produced from sugar derivatives like cellulose and starch. However, it can also be derived from straw, milk, tapioca, sawdust, wood chips, food waste, vegetable oils and fats, etc.

Bio-based plastics have properties similar to plastics derived form non-renewable sources. For example, biopolyethylene is made from sugar cane, but its physical properties are similar to polyethylene which is made from petroleum.

Although bioplastics are "bio-based", not all of them are biodegradable.

Biodegradation is a process wherein the microorganisms present in the environment converts the materials into a natural substance like carbon dioxide, water, methane, and so on. Also, the material is biodegradable when it degrades in a short period of less than one year. In other words, biodegradation is directly related to the chemical structure of the material rather than its source of origin.

Biobased and biodegradable plastics include blends of starch, polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). These are currently the most popular bioplastics. Besides these, there are several other bioplastics such as cellulose-based, and protein-based polymers.  

Polylactic acid (PLA)

PLA is derived from sugars found in crops like corn, cassava, or sugarcane. PLA is biodegradable, and non-toxic. When PLA undergoes biodegradation, it releases CO2, water, and decomposed organic matter, which can be used by green plants.

PLA can look and behave like polyethylene (used in plastic films, packing and bottles), polystyrene (Styrofoam and plastic cutlery) or polypropylene (packaging, auto parts, textiles).

Cellulose-based bioplastics

Cellulose plastics are derived from cellulose acetate, nitrocellulose and cellulose esters. These kinds of cellulose are present in plant materials like forestry residue and by-products of agricultural production. 

Starch-based materials

Starch plastics are the most common type among bioplastics. It could even be prepared at home by following processes like "gelatinizing starch" and "solution casting".

Starch is abundant, low price, and completely biodegradable. Starch can originate from wheat, corn, rice, and potatoes. Now, starch bioplastics are mainly explored as a sustainable choice for food packaging.

However, it has some disadvantages – for example, it is not waterproof, it is  sensitive to moisture and rather brittle. For that reason, starch plastics are sometimes mixed with biodegradable polyesters or filled with nanofillers to make the material stronger.

Protein-based bioplastics

Protein-based plastic can be made from soy, albumin or wheat gluten. Usually, it is strong and elastic, however, it can be water-sensitive and expensive.

Aliphatic polyesters bioplastics

Aliphatic polyester bioplastics are highly biodegradable and biocompatible and usually have a high melting point. Though these kinds of plastics are brittle, blending them with other polymers makes them robust and strong.

Poly 3- HydroxyButyrate (PHB) bioplastics

These aliphatic plastics are derived from a few bacteria processing corn starch, glucose or wastewater.

It is also transparent with a high melting point and does not leave any residue when degraded. However, it usually costs higher than other bioplastics.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) plastics

PHA plastics are aliphatic plastics made naturally by microorganisms from lipids and sugar. This kind of plastic is less elastic and malleable as compared to other biodegradable plastics.

Polyhydroxyalkanoate plastics are used in the medical, textile and packaging industry. These plastics are rather costly. 

Useful links: 

Bioplastic Cook Book

PLA (Polylactic Acid) is a thermoplastic derived from renewable sources such as cornstarch or sugarcane. Biodegradable under the right conditions, PLA is one of the most popular bioplastics and is perfect for a variety of applications ranging from plastic cups to medical implants.

PLA is stable in general atmospheric conditions, though it will biodegrade within 50 days in industrial composters and 48 months in water.

Even though PLA is regarded as a recyclable plastic, and even biodegradable as well, it cannot be recycled with other types of plastic because of its lower melting temperature, since this will create problems at recycling centers.

The main two ways of recycling PLA are to hand it to a recycling plant that can handle it, or to grind it up and extrude it into new filament.

Concrete is a hardened construction material that forms from a mixture of cement, water, and aggregates such as crushed rocks, sand, slag, and gravel. 

Concrete is the second most consumed material in the world after water. Yet, its negative impact on the environment can not be overestimated: cement production now contributes about 8% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. The majority of the carbon emission comes from the burning of fossil fuels to generate heat and start the cement-making process. Mining to extract raw materials such as sand and gravel for concrete leads to land degradation and water pollution. The concrete industry is also responsible for around 9% of the industrial water withdrawal worldwide.

The good news is that there are several sustainable alternatives to concrete, for example – green concrete, mycelium, hempcrete, bamboo concrete, ferrock.  

Green concrete  

Greencrete is an umbrella term for several eco-friendly materials which mimic the structural properties of concrete. 

Usually, different waste materials from industrial productions, mining and incinerator residue are used to create it. In general, it requires less energy for production and emits less carbon dioxide than usual concrete.

At the same time, It is more durable and requires less maintenance.

Hempcrete

Hemp concrete or hempcrete is a mixture of hemp shives – a waste product generated when processing hemp into fiber – lime, water and additives like sand. Hempcrete uses much less water than typical concrete and is much lighter. It also has superior thermal properties.

Hemp can be grown in a range of soils and climates, making it an easy-to-harvest crop all across the globe. Like ferrock, it can be regarded as carbon-negative because hemp stores a large amount of atmospheric carbon as it is grown.

It is a biodegradable material.

Ferrock

Ferrock is a carbon-negative concrete alternative. The material's name comes from ferrous rock, but it is primarily composed of waste steel dust and ground silica glass, with 95% of its components being recycled.

It is around five times more strong than typical cement. It is also flexible and can bend without breaking due to compression or seismic action. This property of ferrock makes it easier for artists to mold and experiment with unique forms and shapes for their sculptures.

Ferrock sets faster than concrete. What is more, unless the typical concrete it becomes even stronger when exposed to saltwater. That is why ferrock can be used for creating marine-based structures. 

It is renewable, recyclable, and non-toxic. 

It is yet a new material, that is why it is not widely available, and can be costly compared to convenntional concrete.

Bamboo concrete

Bamboo concrete is popular because it has excellent tensile strength. It is lighter than traditional concrete and has terrific flexibility because of its internal fibers. It is durable and resistant to corrosion.

The mycelium bricks are also much lighter and durable comparing to regular concrete. This material is resistant to fire, water and mold.

Polymer clay is easy to work with as it cures at a much lower temperature than natural clay. It comes in various colors and consistencies. It does not shrink or expand after it has been cured. It is also quite durable and waterproof.

Polymer clay is composed of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and a plasticiser (salts, petroleum jelly).  

PVC is not biodegradable and can leach harmful chemicals, complicating waste management and recycling efforts. It is difficult to recycle due to additives and fillers that need to be separated.

If you like DIY, you can make a more sustainable alternative yourself. For this, you will need flour or cornstarch as a main component. You can check some recipes here.

Plasticine is usually made from calcium salts, petroleum jelly and aliphatic acids. It is not biodegradable and not sustainable.

Synthetic resins are divided into two classes:

• thermoplastic resins – they remain plastic after heat treatment,

• thermosetting resins – they become hard and not flexible after heating. 

Synthetic resins are not clearly differentiated from plastics.

Epoxy resin is a super strong adhesive, resistant to both heat and chemical exposure.

Epoxy resin is a mixture of organic and inorganic components, most of which are toxic to the human body and to animals. 

Epoxy resin is not biodegradeable, it can not be reprocessed, repaired, or recycled. 

Cured (hardened) resin can be disposed of in regular rubbish. However, it might leak when mixed with other waste in the landfill, and thus there is a risk of polluting soil and water. It is better not to dispose resin in a liquid state, as the risk of water pollution is even higher. It is recommended to leave the resin exposed to sunlight for several days until it hardens – and only then dispose of it with regular waste. In short, the disposal of epoxy resin is a big problem. So if possible, choose more sustainable options.

Synthetic resins are divided into two classes: 

• thermoplastic resins – they remain plastic after heat treatment,

• thermosetting resins – they become hard  and not flexible after heating.

Synthetic resins are not clearly differentiated from plastics.   

Fibreglass is a synthetic resin, usually polyester, which has been reinforced with laminations of glass fibre. It is an extremely strong, hard, lightweight and durable material. As a material for sculpture, it is often coloured by means of fillers and pigments. It is possible to model fibreglass, but more usually it is cast as a laminated shell. 

Fibreglass can be recycled, however, the process is not simple as it is a composite material which needs special treatment to separate glass fibre and resin and make them suitable for reusing.

There are two primary foam types derived from the polyurethane family; polyester and polyether. Polyurethane was originally synthesised as a substitute for natural rubber in World War II. Polyester polyurethanes are more readily degraded by microbial action than polyether polyurethanes. 

Polyurethane foam can be both thermoplastic and thermosetting. It comes in rigid or flexible form. Exposure to UV light can cause discolouration in both polyester and polyether foams. Another serious drawback is that flexible polyurethane foams are easily ignited.  

Although obtaining polyurethane foam produces a very small amount of CO2 emissions, it is made by combining two types of liquid chemicals both of which come from crude oil distillation. It also poses some serious health risks: vapors and aerosols released during and after mixing the two chemicals up to the time the polyurethane is cured can cause asthma, lung damage, other respiratory and breathing problems, skin and eye irritation, and cancer. Besides, these chemicals are toxic for animals and can cause soil and water pollution.  

Polyurethane foam is not readily biodegradable. It can be recycled. However, no current recycling options can provide a high-quality, reusable, and consistent end product. That is why most of polyurethane foams end up in landfills. Just around a third of polyurethane foams are recycled.  

A more sustainable alternative would be latex foam which is renewable, biodegradable, and free of harmful chemicals.

Although silicone is made from a natural source, it is a man-made, synthetic material. Silicone is derived from sand, and to make it, quartz sand is heated at temperatures of up to 1800℃ (3272℉). After that, the materials comes through several more steps which involve mixing it with other chemicals and adding water. Overall, the production processes is energy-intensive and requires the usage of many chemicals. That means, it is not sustainable.  

Silicone is versatile as it can be made into different consistencies, such as to become a gel, rubbery in texture, or hard like a rock. 

Silicone is not the most environmentally friendly material. Producing silicone uses hydrocarbons derived from petroleum, which is not sustainable. It is difficult to recycle, and most facilities will not accept it. 

Silicone is not biodegradable.  

Methods for recycling silicone have been patented since 1991, but involve highly toxic chemicals like sulfuric acid heated to high temperatures, and result in waste products that must be disposed of in landfills. 

Silicone is a stable material with high resistance to extreme temperatures, it does not break apart easily and it is durable. Another good thing is that it will not shed microplastics over time unlike plastics.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a durable petrochemical thermoplastic that can take many forms. 

Chlorine which forms the base for the material and dioxin which is created during the production of PVC are heavy environmental pollutants. According to WHO, Dioxin is known as one of the most toxic chemicals ever produced. It may disrupt the hormones of animals, causing birth defects, infertility, and developmental problems with their young. PVC can also cause harm to humans' health when burned. 

PVC can be recycled repeatedly up to 8 times depending on the application. A more sustainable alternative to this material would be natural rubber, latex or cork.

Polystyrene is very difficult and costly to recycle. Most recycling facilities are unable to process EPS because, unlike other plastics, it is challenging to get back in its base form. Cost is not the only issue, however. Polystyrene’s brittle form means it easily breaks into tiny pieces and disperses.

Polystyrene is chemically stable, non-biodegradable, and neither bacteria or microorganisms feed on it. 

The International Agency for Research on Cancer named it as a possible human carcinogen. So does a 2014 National Toxicological Program report on carcinogens which classifies styrene as "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen" and being linked to occurrence of leukemia and lymphoma cancer. As a sustainable alternative consider using starch-based bioplastics or mycelium-based materials, or Wood / cellulose-based foams.

Acrylic is a highly durable plastic, usually transparent. It is also known under the names of plexiglass, perspex and plastic perspex. It is often used as a less breakable alternative to glass.  

Acrylic is a thermoplastic, meaning that it can be heated and cooled while retaining its properties. It is lightweight and able to withstand any weather. What is more, it offers UV and high impact resistance – acrylic is about 10 times more impact resistant than glass.  

Acrylic plastics are not sustainable, from the production to its usage and disposal. To produce 1 kilogram of acrylic plastic, approximately 2 kilograms of oil is required, and about 5.5 kilograms of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Although in theory acrylic sheets can be recycled, in reality it hardly happens as the process is difficult and dangerous, so very few facilities are ready to deal with it. Like most plastics, it is not compostable or biodegradable, so it is likely to persist for a long time within the ground.  

Acrylic can be recycled and reused multiple times. Recycled acrylic can be just as transparent and UV-resistant as its non-recycled counterparts.

A photopolymer or light-activated resin is a polymer that changes its properties when exposed to light, most commonly ultraviolet light. Usually, it is used in 3d printing, especially to achieve the effect of embossing. These resins can have varying degrees of flexibility, hardness, or transparency. However, some resins can be brittle.  

Currently, scientists experiment with sustainable alternatives. However, no alternative have been fully adapted for commercial use yet.

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is a specific type of plastic polymer made from the fusion of styrene and acrylonitrile with polybutadiene. 

Usually, it has a glossy finish. It is rigid, durable, and has high chemical resistance. ABS is flammable when it is exposed to high temperatures, such as those of a wood fire. 

While ABS is not biodegradable, you can recycle it. Used for 3D printing. PLA can be used a sustainable alternative, especially for the purpose of 3D printing.